russia demographic transition model

Examples of countries in Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition are Argentina, Australia, Canada, China, Brazil, most of Europe, Singapore, South Korea, and the U.S. Thus, nonmarital childbearing appears to be occurring among the least educated regardless of age constraints. Postsecondary graduates had first conception rates that were 17% higher, although this term is not significant (it is, however, when the interaction term between duration and post-Soviet change is not included in the model). Dirk van de Kaa (2001) further specified that the behavioral changes of the SDT occur in a sequence, starting with declines in the total fertility rate and progressing through 15 stages that culminate in the decoupling of marriage and fertility. First is the importance of immigration: in the high-income countries of Western, Southern, and Northern European that have rapidly aging populations, migrants help bolster the size of the working-age population and significantly increase the size of the labor force. Demographic Transition Model blog series: Overview, Stage 1, Stage 2, Stage 3, Stage 4, Stage 5. Currently Mexico is in late expanding or stage 3 meaning they are going through urbanization. Kommersant. (2007). The high death rates are because of disease and potential food scarcity. Generations and gender survey (GGS): Towards a better understanding of relationships and processes in the life course. The coronavirus pandemic has hit Russia very hard. Around the late 1980's near the fall of the Soviet Union. Table2 also shows that the rates of conception declined within all three union statuses during the 1990s. Another result that casts doubt on the SDT perspective is that the rates of cohabiting and single births to more-educated women are about the same, while SDT predicts that cohabiting births should be more common. According to most business people, it is easier to do business in Sweden(Nuur, Laestadius, & Nuur, 2010). What demographic transition is Russia in? The possibility that Russia might have fewer people and a smaller economy will not negate the fact that it is a nuclear superpower with unfriendly intent. However, modeling all the processes simultaneously poses computational challenges and places strong demands on the data, particularly because some of the transitions occur at very low rates. We do not analyze union status at time of birth for pregnancies conceived by married women because very few marital unions dissolved during pregnancy. My survey is universal. We find that although Russia shares some aspects of SDT theory, it has more features similar to the POD. Contrary to SDT, education has scant influence on the probability of cohabiting at time of birth for women who experience either form of nonmarital pregnancy. For more information on the GGS, see http://www.unece.org/pau/ggp/Welcome.html or http://www.socpol.ru/eng/research_projects/proj12.shtml, as well as Vikat et al. The government is of course aware of this problem and has for years pursued pro-natalist policies to boost the birth rate. We argue that although the SDT has been conceptualized in many different ways (see Sobotka (2008) for a discussion), the underlying ideas usually associated with the SDTfor example, secularization, individualism, self-expression, and self-actualizationare intrinsically linked to higher education. 14. They could even be occurring less frequently, as long as the rate of marital births is decreasing more rapidly. Second, the importance of enhancing investment in the human capital of young people their education and health so that when they are adults they will be more productive and healthy citizens who could, at least partially, compensate for the decline in the share of the working-age population of Russia. Theres little doubt that Russian demographic trends look discouragingbut what Russia becomes is less important than what Russia is willing to do, writes Alexandra Vacroux. 26. (3) THIRD STAGE (Late expanding) *Death rate declines further and. At this stage, the life expectancy of men had increased to 39 while that of women had shot up to over 43. Therefore 4, which is based on Appendix Table4). Data are from the Russian GGS, Predicted percentage of single and cohabiting conceptions that result in each union status at birth (estimated at age 22, secondary degree): Women aged 1549. So the population remains low and stable. This pattern seems to have been exacerbated by the economic turmoil during Russias transition to a market economy. The state is much of a transiting society.Sweden. Most researchers studying this trend attribute it to the second demographic transition, brought on by the massive social change that occurred after the collapse of the Soviet Union (Hoem et al. These studies have demonstrated a steady increase in cohabitation entry rates beginning in the early 1980s, as well as a decline in marriage entry rates, both of which are trends consistent with SDT Proposition 1. What Russiabecomesis less important than what Russia is willing todo. Union formation among economically disadvantaged unwed mothers, Marriage and cohabitation following premarital conception, Diverging destinies: How children are faring under the second demographic transition, Poverty and the economic transition in the Russian federation. What is Stage 5 in the Demographic Transition Model? WebThe simplified model of the demographic transition describes the shift from a pre-industrial society, in which the fertility and death rates are high, to a society in which fertility rates are low, but people grow relatively old thanks to lower mortality rates. These arguments imply that childbearing becomes more common within cohabiting unions not sanctioned by formal state or religious institutions, but they do not imply that single motherhood increases. Populations can be represented by age-sex pyramids that capture the number of people of each age at any given time. Areas like capital goods increased 158%, consumer goods increased by 87%, and total industrial output increased by 118%. I recently moved back to Russia after spending more than two decades away and I found a country quite different from the one I left in the late 1990s. Countries with high birthrates have age-sex pyramids that look like triangles with a wide base of newborns. On the other hand, Canada has a population of about 31 million persons. 2005). Only future studies based on more recent data will be able to determine whether the sudden drop in legitimation of first pregnancies for single female GGS respondents in 20002003 was a temporary phenomenon, random sampling error, or the start of a trend toward declining legitimation of single pregnancies. In stark contrast to SDT Proposition 2, studies of the United States have consistently shown a negative association between nonmarital childbearing and education, regardless of whether the births occur to single mothers or to cohabiting couples (Rindfuss et al. $4.650 trillion (PPP, 2022 est.). We find that the increase in the percentage of nonmarital births was driven mainly by the growing proportion of women who cohabit before conception, not changing fertility behavior of cohabitors or changes in union behavior after conception. Now, on average, women can expect to live to 78.2, according toWorld Bank indicators. After experimenting with several specifications of calendar year (including linear time and five-year periods), we found that four-year intervals starting in 1980 and ending in 2003 fit best. Advancing the study of Georgia and the South Caucasus through research and scholarly exchange, teaching, and outreach. To arrive at these conclusions, we have focused on two types of evidence. Note that the variation by education in the rates fluctuates despite the lack of interaction terms between education and period. Why does Russia have such a low life expectancy? Find your information in our database containing over 20,000 reports, 4.3 million foreigners immigrated to Russia, number of deaths considerably surpasses births, The death rate in Russia increased to 16.7 mortalities per thousand population, COVID-19 was the primary cause of death for over 670 thousand, operational data provided by the state authorities. How did the five year plan affect Russia? These results cannot be compared directly because they are based on different risk sets. Not unlike western nations, Russia has undergone a demographic transition from high fertility and mortality to relatively low The SDT could be advancing much more quickly in these cities, and highly educated women could be bearing children within cohabitation. Since the collapse of Communism in the early 1990s, Russia has experienced difficulties in making the transition from a centrally planned economy to a market based economy. In Russia, the age-sex pyramid looks like an unstable Christmas tree. The decline in the size of Russia's population is accelerating, driven by a combination of the arrival of the demographic dip caused by the 1990s and one of the lowest fertility rates in the world. Russia has pursued a compatriot policy of ostensibly supporting the interests of Russian citizensor sometimes just Russian speakersabroad in the Baltics since the late 1990s. Birth rate falls due to the availability of contraception. 11. Weba. Central and Eastern European Migration Review 10(1): 143-172. doi: 10.17467/ceemr.2021.08. Percentage first births by union status and period: Women aged 1549, Predicted hazards of single, cohabiting, and marital first births, adjusted only for age (estimated at age 22): Women aged 1549. As such, the total population of a country in Stage 2 will rise because births outnumber deaths, not because the birth rate is rising. The only positive demographic trend for Russia had been increasing life expectancy, but that trend wasreversedby COVID-2019. Currently, the state is in the fourth stage(Junkka, 2018). The word demographic simply means population, and transition relates to change. What countries are in Phase 1 of demographic transition? Median age is the age that divides a population into two numerically equally sized groups; that is, half the people are younger than this age and half are older. WHY THEY ENTERED STAGE 5. Using retrospective union, birth, and education histories that span 19802003, this study investigates nonmarital childbearing in contemporary Russia. In Stage 4, birth and death rates are both low, stabilizing the population. Thus, cohabitation will become an alternative to marriage, in that pregnancy no longer prompts marriage (Manning 1993). Russia's population is in a historic decline as emigration, war and a plunging birth rate form a 'perfect storm'. What is Stage 4 Demographic Transition called? The implications for Russia are important countries with a rapidly shrinking working-age population often struggle to maintain the pace of physical and human capital accumulation needed for economic growth. 2008-06-25T16:26:00+02:00 Births to 15- to 17-year-olds accounted for only 4.7% of first births and 8.7% of first births to single mothers in 19802003. By testing whether Russia fits the SDT or POD account more closely, we mean only to address which model best captures the detailed trends and correlates of nonmarital childbearing, not to claim that either account could possibly explain all of its instances. It shows that the increase in nonmarital childbearing is due both to the decline in marital birth rates and to the increase in nonmarital birth rates. In Europe, particularly the Scandinavian countries, nonmarital childbearing primarily occurs among stable, cohabiting couples (Kiernan 2004; Perelli-Harris et al. This will also help limit the countrys overall health costs. Therefore, decreased normative insistence on marriage as a prerequisite to childbearing could well have a profound effect on the probabilities of union status at birth following a single or cohabiting conception. For example, Smith et al. In a country classified as Stage 5 in the DTM model, the population is usually high, but there are signs of a declining population. Because official statistics do not include information on cohabiting unions at the time of birth, we analyze the Russian GGS.6 The GGS conducted interviews with 7,038 women aged 1579. What is Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition Model? The relationship between education and nonmarital childbearing has not changed over time: the least-educated women have the highest birth rates as cohabiting or single mothers because of their rates of marriage prior to conception and their lower probabilities of legitimating a nonmarital conception. describe the change in age structure of a population as a result of the dynamics in mortality and fertility rates. What country is in Stage 4 of the Demographic Transition? Removing 15- to 17-year-olds from the analyses does not significantly alter the results in Fig. Getting land is also a problem for many people as it is costly. Get in touch with us. Like several other countries around the world, Russia faces advanced population aging, along with declining fertility and mortality in the decades ahead. 6 imply that the percentage of single and cohabiting births would increase. In the demographic transition model, a country begins in Stage 1, the preindustrial stage. WebDemographic transition model (DTM) The Demographic Transition Model was developed by the American demographer Warren Thompson in 1929. In contrast, the least-educated women generally have somewhat higher rates of single than cohabiting births, which is predicted by POD.12. Data are from the Russian GGS, Distribution of childless women aged 1549 by union status in December of each year. Read the Department of State's COVID-19 page before you plan any international travel. Nonmarital childbearing has increased in many countries, but Russia provides a particularly interesting case study because of the vast changes that occurred during and after the breakup of the Soviet Union. The most extreme version of seizing another countrys citizens was the annexation of Crimea, which added another 2.5 million citizens to Russias population. The best of the best: the portal for top lists & rankings: Strategy and business building for the data-driven economy: Life expectancy at birth in the CIS 2021, by country, Natural increase in population in Russia 1990-2021, Life expectancy at birth in Russia 1990-2020, by area, International migratory flows in Russia 1997-2021, Distribution of the global population by continent 2022, Distribution of the global population 2022, by continent, Countries with the largest population 2021, Twenty countries with the largest population in mid 2021 (in millions), Estimated population of selected European countries in 2022, Russia: Total population from 2017 to 2027 (in millions), Population in Russia 1960-2022, by gender, Male and female population of Russia from 1960 to 2022 (in millions), National and international migratory flows in Russia 1990-2021, Total national and international migration in Russia from 1990 to 2021, by flow (in 1,000s), Russia: Population density from 2011 to 2021 (inhabitants per square kilometer), Russian urban and rural population size 1970-2022, Urban and rural population of Russia from 1970 to 2022 (in million inhabitants), Population growth rate in Russia 1990-2021, by area, Growth rate of population in Russia from 1990 to 2021, by type of area, Population of Russia 2022, by gender and age group, Male and female population in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by age group (in millions), Russian population distribution 2022, by gender and age, Population distribution in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by gender and age group, Female-to-male ratio in Russia 2022, by age group, Number of women per 1,000 men in Russia in 2022, by age group, Average population age in Russia 1990-2022, Average age of the Russian population from January 1, 1990 to January 1, 2022 (in years), Median age of the population in Russia 1950-2100, Russia: Median age of the population from 1950 to 2100 (in years), Forecast population Russia 2022-2100, by age group, Forecast median population of Russia from 2022 to 2100, by age group (in millions), Child population share in Russia 2016-2024, by age group, Distribution of children aged 0 to 12 years in Russia from 2016 to 2024, by age group, Population of Russia 2022, by federal district, Estimated population size in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by federal district (in 1,000s), Urbanization in Russia 2022, by federal district, Degree of urbanization in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by federal district, Population age distribution in Russia 2020, by federal district, Distribution of the population in Russia in 2020, by federal district and age category, Largest cities in Russia as of January 1, 2022, by population (in 1,000s), Natural population increase in Russia from 1990 to 2021 (in 1,000s), Fertility rate in Russia 2000-2021, by type of area, Fertility rate in Russia from 2000 to 2021, by type of area (in children per one woman), Live births in Russia 2021, by mother's age and order, Number of live births in Russia in 2021, by age of mother and birth order, Life expectancy at birth in Russia 2021, by federal district, Average life expectancy at birth in Russia in 2021, by federal district (in years), Number of healthy years at birth in Russia 2019-2021, Healthy life expectancy in Russia from 2019 to 2021 (in years), Mortality rate in Russia from 1950 to 2021 (per 1,000 population), Number of deaths from selected major causes in Russia in 2021 (per 100,000 population), Deaths of COVID-19 patients in Russia monthly 2020-2022, by cause, Number of deaths of COVID-19 patients in Russia from April 2020 to July 2022, by cause, Number of marriages and divorces in Russia 2000-2021, Number of marriages and divorces in Russia from 2000 to 2021 (in 1,000s), Marriage and divorce rates in Russia 2000-2021, Number of marriages and divorces per 1,000 population in Russia from 2000 to 2021, Regions with the highest growth in marriages in Russia 2021, Year-over-year growth in the number of marriages in Russia from January to May 2021, by region, Number of marriages in Russia 2021, by age and gender, Number of marriages registered in Russia in 2021, by groom and bride's age, Attitude to family and marriage in Russia 2021, by age. Until 20002003, births within cohabitation accounted for most of the increase in the percentage of nonmarital births, with the percentages of births to single women fluctuating around 11%. Since its not stage 4 with low birth and death rates Russia could possibly be the futuristic stage 5. Numbers in parentheses are t statistics. The most populous group in Russia has a median age of 50-54yrs. Anupdated 2020 version of the lawmakes it even easier to become a Russian; applicants need no longer prove they have a legal source of income, and former citizens of the Soviet Union can now apply for Russian citizenship without proving residency. Today, some countries that are considered Stage 4 DTM include China, Argentina, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Singapore, South Korea, the United States, and most countries within Europe. By continuing to use our website, you are agreeing to. (2007). Sweden is also promoting active aging, including advancing how it deals with long-term illnesses. 2022 Duke University Press. Increasing fertility in cohabiting unions: Evidence for the second demographic transition? Demographic Transition Model Russia does not have declining birth rates and low death rates that would classify it as stage 3. In the last period, however, births to single women rose to 16%, while births to cohabiting women remained at 17%. It also slightly overestimated women in partnership, perhaps because they were more likely to be at home. Birth rates for single women fluctuated during the period, but also increased overall. In Stage 1 (Figure 3.4. As a result, Poland got a walkover and then beat Sweden to secure its place in Qatar 2022. Here, too, we found no significant interactions between education and period (data not shown). But Russia is not alone in facing such challenges. However, our goal is to adjudicate between two patterns of nonmarital childbearing (SDT and POD), goals that are met through descriptions of the association between education and birth by union status, as well as a focus on behaviors surrounding a nonmarital pregnancy. Perelli-Harris, B., Sigle-Rushton, W., Lappegard, T., Jasilioniene, A., Di Giulio, P., Keizer, R., & Koeppen, K. (2009). This is the transitional process from extreme birth and death percentages to minimal birth and death rates. Does Russia have a negative growth of population? Our results referring to conception pertain only to conceptions that eventually result in a birth and do not take into account changes that may result from declining abortion rates. 2003; Surkyn and Lesthaeghe 2004). Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model. Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is characterized by a low population growth rate due to a high birth rate (number of annual births per one thousand people) and a high death rate (number of annual deaths per one thousand people). A major transformation typical for developed countries, the Second Demographic Transition, is underway. Tags: social studies, geography, demography, birth rate, death rate, demographic transition model, AP Human Geography. 425 4346 Santiago Islands, Shariside, AK 38830-1874, Hobby: Baseball, Wood carving, Candle making, Jigsaw puzzles, Lacemaking, Parkour, Drawing. What is Stage 1 of the Demographic Transition Model? Russian Federation: From the first to second demographic transition This is quite a feat given that for all of human history up until the 18th Century, all countries were considered within Stage 1. Official statistics reflect only registered migrantsnot those in the country off the books. Our study provides an in-depth analysis into the trends and correlates of nonmarital childbearing and finds that the situation has more in common with the pattern of disadvantage characterizing nonmarital fertility in the United States than with the SDT pattern. The SDT predicts that single women will increasingly cohabit (rather than marry) in response to a pregnancy, and cohabiting women will be less likely to marry after conceiving a child. u{>}YWPuwXF}kvNBq(-r-?Iyh&6k[6j7dXm/6SV6U,jk`U-EXW?P, Russian Federation: From the first to second demographic transition. Without advertising income, we can't keep making this site awesome for you. Up to 1938, the population of the Soviet Union remained "demographically young", but later, since 1959, began its demographic ageing: the proportion of young age began to decline, and the elderly to increase, which was the result of lower fertility. These variables may be correlated with period and education and must be controlled. 267 0 obj <> endobj 311 0 obj <>stream 54. Thus, we define the pattern of disadvantage as associated with low education and not necessarily with teenage fertility. Indeed, studies have shown that single-parent families in Russia disproportionately suffered during the transition to a new economy (Klugman and Motivans 2001; Mroz and Popkin 1995). 16. 3. Alexandra Vacroux is executive director of the Davis Center for Russian and Eurasian Studies at Harvard University. Examples Of Demographic TransitionHuman Epidemiological Transition. Medicare Solvency: Financial Analysis. The Great Depression In Canada. Demographic Transition. Social Determinants Of Health Research. Cultural Emergent Examples. The Conservative Movement In The 1980's. Determinants Of Childlessness Essay. Young Generation In BrazilDemographic Transition: The Four Stages. More items In this scenario, nonmarital fertility increases from 15% to 25% throughout the 20-year period. The opposite is true for the single women analyses; single women with semiprofessional or university education had conception rates that were 36% lower than single women with lower levels of education. How did the five year plan affect Russia? Unfortunately, healthy life expectancy in Russia is 10 years below the average life expectancy globally. 53. 3, bear in mind that the model controls for school enrollment and that the measurement of education, while crude, is time-varying. The main disparities are that the GGS undersampled women aged 3039 and oversampled women aged 4054 at the time of the survey. Thus, the survey may not be representative of these major urban areas, where childbearing within cohabitation may be increasing the most quickly. 2009; Kostova 2007; Maleva and Sinyavskaya 2007; Philipov and Jasiloniene 2008; Zakharov 2008). As we detail in the following sections, these changes could have led to either the second demographic transition (SDT) or the U.S. pattern of disadvantage (POD). Have births to cohabiting women and single women followed similar trends? Most directly, Russia wants to increase the number of Russian citizens. Changing the value of age has only trivial impact on the patterns of change over time in the three rates we plot: it merely shifts the trend lines up or down, and bends the lines slightly without changing results. The most important key figures provide you with a compact summary of the topic of "Demographics of Russia" and take you straight to the corresponding statistics. The raw rates of single, cohabiting, and marital births provide more information than the percentages of births by union status because all three birth rates vary independently, while only two of the three percentages do. 2009; Kostova 2007). Excess deaths year on year since the start of the pandemic suggest the actual number could be at least 50% higher, according to theFinancial Times, among others. We do not analyze the trends and correlates of cohabitation in Russia here, however, because they have been studied extensively elsewhere (Gerber and Berman 2010; Hoem et al. 21. The demographic transition model was initially proposed in 1929 by demographer Warren Thompson. Secondly, there might have been a variance in age distribution in the two countries also though I have assumed that it was constant. Although our hypotheses focus on conception rates of women who are single and cohabiting, we also estimate models of conception among married women for the sake of comparison and completeness. Are you interested in testing our corporate solutions? The population loss from COVID comes on top of already unfavorable demographic trends. Straightforward likelihood-ratio tests consistently supported the three-category specification of education yields over the five-category specification. We do, however, include standard controls for the effects of age on fertility. WebThe account of nonmarital childbearing in Russia derived from SDT theory implies two broad propositions that we can test with our data: SDT Proposition 1 The increase in nonmarital childbearing stems primarily from an increase in the rate of Why does Russia have such a low birth rate? WebAs a country passes through the demographic transition model, the total population rises. (4) FOURTH STAGE (Low stationary) This stage is characterized with. Example: poorest developing countries like Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bolivia, sub-Saharan countries such as Niger, Uganda and middle east countries like Yemen, Palestinian Territories are still in stage 2. And we really really need these migrants to implement our ambitious plans We must build more than we are building now. Age refers to current age in a particular month. This also has major implications for Russias place in the world. The entitlement, now worth about $6,500, can be used to upgrade housing, for education or to fund the mothers pension. The second version of the model introduces dummy variables measuring respondents education in the particular month at risk. Thus, the majority of the education results are consistent with the POD. What do you think is more preferable these days? We also do not have time-varying covariates for size of locality and cannot capture urban-rural effects that operate in tandem with education. Russian population living abroad 1990-2020, Russian international migrant stock worldwide from 1990 to 2020 (in 1,000s), Leading countries of destination of emigrants from Russia 2021, Number of emigrants from Russia in 2021, by country of destination (in 1,000s), Russian citizens living in Europe 2021, by country, Number of people living in Europe with Russian citizenship in 2021, by country, Leading countries of origin of immigrants in Russia 2021, Number of immigrants in Russia in 2021, by country of origin (in 1,000s), Number of citizenships granted in Russia 2015-2021, Number of persons who acquired the Russian citizenship from 2015 to 2021, Russian citizenship acquisitions 2021, by country of origin, Number of persons who acquired the Russian citizenship in 2021, by country of origin (in 1,000s), Number of residence permits issued in Russia 2015-2021, by type, Number of residence permits issued to foreign citizens and stateless persons in Russia from 2015 to 2021, by duration (in 1,000s), Total internal migration within Russia 2000-2021, Total internal migration within regions of Russia from 2000 to 2021 (in 1,000s), Internal migration in Russia 2000-2021, by federal district, Internal migration in Russia from 2000 to 2021, by federal district of destination (in 1,000s). Two countries also though I have assumed that it was constant period ( not. Countries also though I have assumed that it was constant a median age of 50-54yrs million citizens Russias! Given time had been increasing life expectancy expectancy in Russia is 10 years below the average expectancy... Death rates are both low, stabilizing the population be occurring among the least educated of.... ) the period, but also increased overall demographic trends associated with low birth and rates... Kiernan 2004 ; Perelli-Harris et al declining birth rates and low death rates are both low, stabilizing the.... Pyramids that capture the number of Russian citizens declining birth rates and low death Russia! Why does Russia have such a low life expectancy globally as it is costly interactions between education must! To most business people, it is costly women in partnership, perhaps they. Were more likely to be occurring among the least educated regardless of age on fertility est..... Industrial output increased by 118 % walkover and then beat Sweden to secure its in! 0 obj < > stream 54 age of 50-54yrs means population, and total industrial output increased by 118.! Be controlled least-educated women generally have somewhat higher russia demographic transition model of single than births... Et al really really need these migrants to implement our ambitious plans must! Developed by the economic turmoil during Russias Transition to a market economy variables may be with! Doi: 10.17467/ceemr.2021.08 land is also a problem for many people as is... Investigates nonmarital childbearing appears to be at home for many people as it is.... Yields over the five-category specification do not analyze union status in December of each year primarily occurs among,! Most populous group in Russia has a population of about 31 million persons predicted by POD.12 capture urban-rural that! A low life expectancy in Russia is willing todo 2, Stage 4 of the demographic Transition?! 1549 by union status at time of birth for pregnancies conceived by married women because few. Life course undersampled women aged 1549 by union status at time of the demographic Transition Perelli-Harris et al pregnancy! Or http: //www.unece.org/pau/ggp/Welcome.html or http: //www.unece.org/pau/ggp/Welcome.html or http: //www.socpol.ru/eng/research_projects/proj12.shtml, as well Vikat... Is willing todo stable, cohabiting couples ( Kiernan 2004 ; Perelli-Harris et al 0

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