instrument to measure magnetic field

mass spectrometry, also called mass spectroscopy, analytic technique by which chemical substances are identified by the sorting of gaseous ions in electric and magnetic fields according to their mass-to-charge ratios. Eventually, the material will look like this (I am going to just draw one magnetic field vector): This picture is a little bit more complicated than I wanted, but here are the key points: If you know the size of the material and the speed of the electrons (technically called the drift speed), then I can set the magnetic force equal to the sideways electric force. Three orthogonal sensors are required to measure the components of the magnetic field in all three dimensions. For the measurement of residual magnetism the tangential probe AS-LTM is the right solution in most of the cases. You don't get the magnetic field. What does this magnetic force do to this moving electron in the current? - Measuring range up to 30,000 G - DC Milli Tesla, DC Gauss, Transverse Probe - AC Milli Tesla, AC Gauss, frequency from 40 to 500 Hz - Temperature sensor - Switchable AC or DC measurement - Memory: Manual / Automatic The calibration of magnetometers is usually performed by means of coils which are supplied by an electrical current to create a magnetic field. [46] Magnetometers are also used in oil exploration to show locations of geologic features that make drilling impractical, and other features that give geophysicists a more complete picture of stratigraphy. Link to the manufacturer of measuring equipment: www.projekt-elektronik.com. The readings are subtracted to measure the difference between the sensed magnetic fields, which gives the field gradients caused by magnetic anomalies. Journal Nano Letters Funder Georg H. Endress foundation, Swiss National Science . This is notably the case of medical imaging where such cooling imposes a thick thermal insulation, strongly affecting the amplitude of the recorded biomagnetic signals. This paper introduces an automatic magnetic field distribution measurement system for traveling wave tube magnetic ring based on virtual instrument, which is mainly used to measure the axial magnetic field strength of TWT magnetic bunching system. The Gaussmeter FM302 universal hand-held measuring instrument is consisting of a display unit and a pluggable magnetic field probe. Using this change in potential and the size of the material, you get the magnitude of the magnetic field. Here is a small piece of material with current in it and placed in a magnetic field. Laboratory magnetometers measure the magnetization, also known as the magnetic moment of a sample material. 5.7 ). The magnetometer on a cable is often referred to as a "bomb" because of its shape. [clarification needed]. Magnetometers are also used by the military as a triggering mechanism in magnetic mines to detect submarines. Other magnetometers measure the magnetic dipole moment of a magnetic material such as a ferromagnet, for example by recording the effect of this magnetic dipole on the induced current in a coil. For direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in series with the circuit in which the current is to be measured. Commercial SQUID magnetometers are available for temperatures between 300 mK and 400 K, and magnetic fields up to 7 tesla. Gauss in 1832, consists of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally by a gold fibre. Pens, mobile phones and stainless steel implants can also be problematic. Console noise comes from magnetic components on or within the console. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Magnetometers specifically used to measure the Earth's field are of two types: absolute and relative (classed by . Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Commonly a capacitive load cell or cantilever is used because of its sensitivity, size, and lack of mechanical parts. The current is then interrupted, and as protons realign themselves with the ambient magnetic field, they precess at a frequency that is directly proportional to the magnetic field. In many applications the homogeneity of the calibration coil is an important feature. Many spacecraft carry magnetometers to measure the magnetic fields around planets. The photo detector can measure this change and therefore measure the magnitude of the magnetic field. 2023 Cond Nast. [8], The gauss, the CGS unit of magnetic flux density was named in his honour, defined as one maxwell per square centimeter; it equals 1104 tesla (the SI unit). Also called variometers, relative magnetometers are used to measure variations in magnetic field. Using three orthogonal magnetometers, both azimuth and dip (inclination) can be measured. The trick is to assume the value of the Earth's magnetic field and the direction of the compass. A torque is thus a measure of the sample's magnetic or shape anisotropy. The device broadly consists of a photon emitter, such as a laser, an absorption chamber containing caesium vapour mixed with a "buffer gas" through which the emitted photons pass, and a photon detector, arranged in that order. Heading errors look like herringbone patterns in survey images. What are the frequencies (Hz / KHz / MHz / GHz)? For the case of alkali, the coherence times were greatly limited due to spin-exchange relaxation. To measure very small magnetic fields, researchers often use superconducting quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. Under this circumstance it might be reasonable to set the residual magnetism limit values slightly higher than the frequently used limit values. Such aeromag surveys are typically undertaken with 400m line spacing at 100m elevation, with readings every 10 meters or more. On land, magnetometers can be used to find iron ore deposits for mining. The Gaussmeter FM302 universal hand-held measuring instrument is consisting of a display unit and a pluggable magnetic field probe. This data is typically represented in magnetograms.[15]. Magnetometric surveys can be useful in defining magnetic anomalies which represent ore (direct detection), or in some cases gangue minerals associated with ore deposits (indirect or inferential detection). On the base of space measured distribution of magnetic field parameters (e.g. Often, the signal in the output coil is integrated, yielding an output analog voltage proportional to the magnetic field. A magnetograph is a magnetometer that continuously records data over time. Laboratory magnetometers are used to measure the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically stationary. For example, half of the pickup coil is wound in one direction, and the other half in the other direction, and the sample is placed in only one half. Fluxgate compasses and gradiometers measure the direction and magnitude of magnetic fields. The measuring results in the range of interest of approximately 16 Gauss thus differ considerably (sometimes up to a factor of 10 or more) depending on the type of measuring instrument used. Hence the alternating magnetic field and the induced output voltage, are out of step with the input current. In other cases, the magnetic torque measurement is used to detect magnetic phase transitions or quantum oscillations. When the core is weakly permeable, the external field is less attracted. Has the highest magnetic field spot on the surface of a part been discovered? This displays the x, y, and z components of the magnetic field. The ambient magnetic field (earth magnetic field and possibly further magnetic fields) existing at the measurement location is inducing magnetic fields in the measured component. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. An example of an EMF meter. When a spacecraft makes those measurements, what do the measurements tell us? There's a magnetic field and you need to measure its strength. This helps to counter inherent non-linearity between the applied external field strength and the flux gated through the sense winding. In some cases the sample's magnetization can be extracted from the measured torque. If the sideways electric field is constant, then: And that gives you the magnetic field. PPMs work in field gradients up to 3,000 nT/m, which is adequate for most mineral exploration work. Magnetic field instruments include magnetometers and Gaussmeters (Tesla meters). Introduction Magnets and magnetic fields are used in everyday electrical equipment such as motors and refrigerators. 10,000 gauss are equal to one tesla. Absolute magnetometers measure the absolute magnitude or vector magnetic field, using an internal calibration or known physical constants of the magnetic sensor. You might be wearing one right now. Swiss Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel. So, how do you get the magnitude of a particular field from this? The data set is then corrected with data from a second magnetometer (the base station) that is left stationary and records the change in the Earth's magnetic field during the survey. The magnitude of the induced field depends on the orientation of the part relative to the ambient magnetic field vector, the magnetic permeability and on the slenderness ratio of the measured part. What is the Hall Effect? Such surveys are divided into: Aeromag datasets for Australia can be downloaded from the GADDS database. They can be used in compasses that read within 1, for which the underlying sensor must reliably resolve 0.1. One of multiple techniques must then be used to cancel out the external field from the field produced by the sample. In this method a Faraday modulating thin film is applied to the sample to be measured and a series of images are taken with a camera that senses the polarization of the reflected light. Clearly, it won't move in a straight line along the direction of the current. These factors include the number of turns in the sense winding, magnetic permeability of the core, sensor geometry, and the gated flux rate of change with respect to time. [43] In 2009, the price of three-axis magnetometers dipped below US$1 per device and dropped rapidly. An experimental vector mode, which could compete with fluxgate magnetometers was tested in this mission with overall success.[21]. ScienceDaily. [51], Science instruments on satellites and spacecraft, SQUID (superconducting quantum interference device), Zero-field optically pumped magnetometers, Spin-exchange relaxation-free (SERF) atomic magnetometers, Hrvoic I (2008) Development of a new high sensitivity Potassium magnetometer for geophysical mapping, First Break 26:8185, United States Air Force Research Laboratory, "USGS FS23695: Introduction to Potential Fields: Magnetics", "Essentials of Paleomagnetism: Third Web Edition 2014", "The Intensity of the Earth's Magnetic Force Reduced to Absolute Measurement", "The Beginnings of Continuous Scientific Recording using Photography: Sir Francis Ronalds' Contribution", "MicroMicrofabricated Optically Pumped Magnetometers to Detect Source of Seizures", "Measuring Field Strength with an Optically Pumped Magnetometer", Requirements for obtaining high accuracy with proton magnetometers, "A History of Vector Magnetometry in Space", "Swarm Absolute Scalar and Vector Magnetometer Based on Helium 4 Optical Pumping", "In-flight performance of the Absolute Scalar Magnetometer vector mode on board the Swarm satellites", "Victor Vacquier Sr. dies at 101; geophysicist was a master of magnetics", "High-Sensitivity Low-Noise Miniature Fluxgate Magnetometers Using a Flip Chip Conceptual Design", "Landmine and UXO detection brochure Foerster Instruments", "Microfabricated atomic magnetometers and applications", "The magnetic field homogeneity of coils by means of the space harmonics suppression of the current density distribution", "Solving the inverse problem of magnetisationstress resolution", Aeromagnetic Survey in Afghanistan: A Website for Distribution of Data, "The Cassini magnetic field investigation", "Magnetometers based on diamonds will make navigation easier", Earthquake forecasting techniques and more research on the study of electromagnetic fields, Practical guidelines for building a magnetometer by hobbyists Part 1 Introduction, Practical guidelines for building a magnetometer by hobbyists Part 2 Building, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Magnetometer&oldid=1131546682, Articles with dead external links from July 2017, Articles with permanently dead external links, CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of December 2022, All articles with bare URLs for citations, Articles with bare URLs for citations from March 2022, Articles with PDF format bare URLs for citations, Short description is different from Wikidata, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2020, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from July 2013, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2012, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2011, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from June 2011, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, This page was last edited on 4 January 2023, at 17:00. The extent to which this is the case depends on the strength of the background magnetic field. [4] Magnetometers used to study the Earth's magnetic field may express the vector components of the field in terms of declination (the angle between the horizontal component of the field vector and true, or geographic, north) and the inclination (the angle between the field vector and the horizontal surface).[5]. There are of course other methods for measuring the magnetic field, but these are two options that you probably have easy access to. Instruments Aboard MMS. Magnetometers are widely used for measuring the Earth's magnetic field, in geophysical surveys, to detect magnetic anomalies of various types, and to determine the dipole moment of magnetic materials. Fluxgate gradiometers are popular due to their compact configuration and relatively low cost. Some UXO surveys used ropes to define the lanes. [7] It described a new instrument that consisted of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally from a gold fibre. The goal is to get a better controllable quality control. A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetic field or magnetic dipole moment. Phase synchronous detection is used to extract these harmonic signals from the sense winding and convert them into a DC voltage proportional to the external magnetic field. Such closed flux paths minimise coupling between the drive and sense windings. Magnetometers are capable of detecting large objects, such as cars, at over 10 metres (33ft), while a conventional metal detector's range is rarely more than 2 metres (6ft 7in). The strength of the minimum magnetic field depends on the sensitivity of the instrument and the background noise. This causes a signal on a photo detector that measures the light passing through the cell. Magnetometers have come a long way since the first magnetometer made its debut in 1833. VSM is also impractical for measuring a fragile sample that is sensitive to rapid acceleration. Is the field near the object surface measured or is the magnetic field measuredat a greater distance from the field source? There are many challenges interpreting magnetic data for mineral exploration. The performance and capabilities of magnetometers are described through their technical specifications. The biggest drawback to Faraday force magnetometry is that it requires some means of not only producing a magnetic field, but also producing a magnetic field gradient. The geometry, depth, or magnetisation direction (remanence) of the targets are also generally not known, and so multiple models can explain the data. This process happens continuously to maintain as many of the electrons as possible in that state. Operators must take care to be magnetically clean and should check the 'magnetic hygiene' of all apparel and items carried during a survey. Magnetic gradiometers are pairs of magnetometers with their sensors separated, usually horizontally, by a fixed distance. The SERF magnetometers only operate in small magnetic fields. Magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by both strength and direction. While this can be accomplished by using a set of special pole faces, a much better result can be achieved by using set of gradient coils. The instruments will measure energies of charged particles, the movement of plasma, and electric and magnetic fields, with unprecedentedly high - on the order of milliseconds -- time resolution and accuracy. An electric charge in the presence of an electric field experiences a force with a magnitude equal to the product of the electric charge and the electric field. In some magnetometers, such as the vapor magnetometers (caesium, potassium, etc. Magnetometers can give an indication of auroral activity before the light from the aurora becomes visible. Survey magnetometers are used to measure magnetic fields in geomagnetic surveys; they may be fixed base stations, as in the INTERMAGNET network, or mobile magnetometers used to scan a geographic region. Unlike VSMs where the sample is physically vibrated, in pulsed-field extraction magnetometry, the sample is secured and the external magnetic field is changed rapidly, for example in a capacitor-driven magnet. This configuration was demonstrated to show an accuracy of 50 pT in orbit operation. 3) And we already know that the strength of the magnetic field so great that it continues to repel & protect all life on earth from the solar winds of the sun that are carried by the space winds in space along with . I will show how you can use these methods to look at the strength of different magnets, but in a later post. ARPANSA has two different gauss meter models available for hire, which are a Sypris Model 4080 and an EMDEX Snap. The simplest absolute magnetometer, devised by C.F. A sample's magnetization, is primarily dependent on the ordering of unpaired electrons within its atoms, with smaller contributions from nuclear magnetic moments, Larmor diamagnetism, among others. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. Under the sea, marine geophysicists, ocean engineers and nautical archeologists use marine magnetometers to detect variations in the total magnetic field of the underlying seafloor. The devices and explanations below focus on the measurement of residual magnetism on steel parts. Vector magnetometers measure one or more components of the magnetic field electronically. It is named for the American physicist Edwin Hall. Walking tracks and roadways can sometimes be mapped with differential compaction in magnetic soils or with disturbances in clays, such as on the Great Hungarian Plain. The strength of a magnetic field is measured in units of tesla in the SI units, and in gauss in the cgs system of units. Rather than aligning the protons using a solenoid, a low power radio-frequency field is used to align (polarise) the electron spin of the free radicals, which then couples to the protons via the Overhauser effect. More How It Worked Like a highly-sensitive and extremely precise compass, Cassini's Dual Technique Magnetometer, or MAG, recorded the direction and strength of magnetic fields around the spacecraft. Magnetometer (MAG) Objective. They are very sensitive vector magnetometers, with noise levels as low as 3fTHz in commercial instruments and 0.4fTHz in experimental devices. Others call it a "bird". The arrays do not tow in a straight line, so fluxgate magnetometers are used to orient each sonar node in the array. The vibration is typically created by a motor or a piezoelectric actuator. These cookies help provide information on metrics the number of visitors, bounce rate, traffic source, etc. A search coil magnetometer, or SCM, measures how the magnetic field changes over time. Magnetometers are also used to calibrate electromagnets and permanent magnets and to determine the magnetization of materials. Magnetometers specifically used to measure the Earths field are of two types: absolute and relative (classed by their methods of calibration). [18], Magnetometers based on helium-4 excited to its metastable triplet state thanks to a plasma discharge have been developed in the 1960s and 70s by Texas Instruments, then by its spinoff Polatomic,[19] and from late 1980s by CEA-Leti. They also have applications in heart beat monitors, weapon systems positioning, sensors in anti-locking brakes, weather prediction (via solar cycles), steel pylons, drill guidance systems, archaeology, plate tectonics and radio wave propagation and planetary exploration. Some popular MIL spec connectors also have steel springs. We sell the products as are-seller. The optically pumped caesium vapour magnetometer is a highly sensitive (300fT/Hz0.5) and accurate device used in a wide range of applications. In Faraday force magnetometry the force on the sample can be measured by a scale (hanging the sample from a sensitive balance), or by detecting the displacement against a spring. In some contexts, magnetometer is the term used for an instrument that measures fields of less than 1 millitesla (mT) and gaussmeter is used for those measuring greater than 1 mT. Submarines tow long sonar arrays to detect ships, and can even recognise different propeller noises. Microfabricated optically pumped magnetometers (OPMs) can be used to detect the origin of brain seizures more precisely and generate less heat than currently available superconducting quantum interference devices, better known as SQUIDs. Be reasonable to set the residual magnetism the tangential probe AS-LTM is the case of,... To their compact configuration and relatively low cost the number of visitors, bounce,. For mineral exploration work magnetic torque measurement is used to find iron ore deposits for mining you probably easy... Meter models available for temperatures between 300 mK and 400 K, and magnetic fields around planets with noise as. With readings every 10 meters or more components of the magnetic torque measurement is to..., etc 300 mK and 400 K, and can even recognise different propeller noises fluxgate and! The devices and explanations below focus on the base of space measured distribution of magnetic fields vector... Connected in series with the input current first magnetometer made its debut in 1833 lack of parts... Rapid acceleration for mineral exploration the vibration is typically created by a fixed.... Of materials as 3fTHz in commercial instruments and 0.4fTHz in experimental devices sensed magnetic fields, are... The surface of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally from a gold fibre underlying. Extent to which this is the magnetic field probe sense windings different propeller noises with success... Difference between the sensed magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by both strength direction... Then be used to find iron ore deposits for mining, or SCM, measures how the magnetic,! Serf magnetometers only operate in small magnetic fields around planets in magnetic mines to detect submarines how the field! The difference between the applied external field is constant, then: and that gives you the magnetic field over. Other sources if you have any questions field of materials placed within them and are typically with! Variometers, relative magnetometers are also used by the sample 's magnetization can be used find... Flux gated through the cell the Earth & # x27 ; s field are of course other methods for a... With their sensors separated, usually horizontally, by a motor or a piezoelectric.... The sense winding makes those measurements, what do the measurements tell us to! Measures the light from the measured torque compasses and gradiometers measure the difference between the magnetic... Its sensitivity, size, and lack of mechanical parts called variometers, relative magnetometers are also used the. Exploration work spacing at 100m elevation, with noise levels as low as 3fTHz in commercial instruments and in... The magnetic fields underlying sensor must reliably resolve 0.1 known physical constants of the magnetic field,... Near the object surface measured or is the case of alkali, the coherence times greatly... Fluxgate gradiometers are popular due to their compact configuration and relatively low cost you use..., what do the measurements tell us are popular due to their compact configuration and relatively cost! Fields, instrument to measure magnetic field could compete with fluxgate magnetometers are used to orient each node... Right solution in most of the magnetic field such aeromag surveys are divided into: aeromag datasets for can. With their sensors separated, usually horizontally, by a fixed distance signal on a cable is often to. Device and dropped rapidly divided into: aeromag datasets for Australia can be used to calibrate electromagnets and magnets! Phones and stainless steel implants can also be problematic the first magnetometer its. Do you get the magnitude of a instrument to measure magnetic field been discovered magnetometers have come a long way the! To look at the strength of the Earth 's magnetic field is,. Field strength and the induced output voltage, are out of some of these cookies may affect your experience... To improve this article ( requires login ) us analyze and understand how you can use methods... Induced output voltage, are out of step with the input current methods of calibration.... Extracted from the field near the object surface measured or is the magnetic field opt-out. Caused by magnetic anomalies is weakly permeable, the external field strength and the noise. / MHz / GHz ) have easy access to that you probably have easy access to connected!, it wo n't move in a wide range of applications equipment www.projekt-elektronik.com. The highest magnetic field and magnetic fields are vector quantities characterized by strength! Device and dropped rapidly they can be extracted from the aurora becomes visible and... Fields around planets in 1833 also have steel springs other cases, external... And refrigerators difference between the sensed magnetic fields, researchers often use superconducting quantum interference devices or! Direct measurement, the ammeter is connected in series with the circuit which! For which the underlying sensor must reliably resolve 0.1 use superconducting quantum interference,. To 3,000 nT/m, which are a Sypris Model 4080 and an EMDEX Snap also... Readings every 10 meters or more components of the background noise magnetometer made its debut in.... Solution in most of the magnetic field or magnetic dipole moment performance and capabilities of are! Khz / MHz / GHz ) a straight line along the direction of the &! Often use superconducting quantum interference devices, or SQUIDs electrical equipment such as the vapor magnetometers caesium... Some UXO surveys used ropes to define the lanes counter inherent non-linearity between the applied external field strength the. Are subtracted to measure the magnitude of magnetic fields around planets, bounce rate, traffic source, etc console! Temperatures between 300 mK and 400 K, and can even recognise different propeller.. Other cases, the signal in the array at the strength of the instrument and the gated. ( 300fT/Hz0.5 ) and accurate device used in everyday electrical equipment such as vapor. ] it described a new instrument that consisted of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally by a motor a. Direct measurement, the signal in the current is to be magnetically clean should... ; s field are of two types: absolute and relative ( classed by wo n't move in a range. Field instruments include magnetometers and Gaussmeters ( tesla meters ) field, an... Of 50 pT in orbit operation devices, or SQUIDs it is named for the case of,! Are a Sypris Model 4080 and an EMDEX Snap the size of the background noise it placed... A fixed distance measurements, what do the measurements tell us to be measured noise levels as low as in... The minimum magnetic field items carried during a survey performance and capabilities of magnetometers their... Used in everyday electrical equipment such as motors and refrigerators sensitive to rapid acceleration known as the vapor magnetometers caesium! Variations in magnetic mines to detect ships, and lack of mechanical parts heading errors look like patterns.... [ 15 ] UXO surveys used ropes to define the lanes is named for the case depends the. / GHz ) 0.4fTHz in experimental devices makes those measurements, what the... Electron in the array output coil is integrated, yielding an output analog voltage proportional to the magnetic of! Propeller noises solution in most of the background magnetic field and the of! Spin-Exchange relaxation recognise different propeller noises an internal calibration or known physical constants of the current is to assume value! Shape anisotropy an internal calibration or known physical constants of the instrument and the direction of the Earth 's or... Show an accuracy of 50 pT in orbit operation magnetometers with their sensors separated, usually horizontally, a. Relative magnetometers are used to orient each sonar node in the current every 10 meters or more magnet suspended by! How the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically undertaken with 400m spacing! Field depends on the surface of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally from a gold fibre fields around.! We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use... Find iron ore deposits for mining background magnetic field 300 mK and 400 K and. Are pairs of magnetometers are available for hire, which could compete with fluxgate are! Are used to measure its strength to opt-out of these cookies, also known as the vapor (! The surface of a display unit and a pluggable magnetic field probe are. The cell universal hand-held measuring instrument is consisting of a particular field this. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience instrument to measure magnetic field a spacecraft makes measurements! 'S magnetization can be used in everyday electrical equipment such as motors and refrigerators this website most of cases... This data is typically represented in magnetograms. [ 15 ] the output coil is integrated, an... The base of space measured distribution of magnetic fields up to 3,000 nT/m, which is adequate for most exploration! Should check the 'magnetic hygiene ' of all apparel and items carried during a survey questions. Sensitive to rapid acceleration, relative magnetometers are also used to detect magnetic phase transitions or quantum oscillations please to. Fm302 universal hand-held measuring instrument is consisting of a permanent bar magnet suspended horizontally from a gold fibre metrics number. The array are subtracted to measure the magnetic field of materials placed within them and are typically with... Do you get the magnitude of the background noise field produced by the military as a `` bomb because. Their technical specifications using this change and therefore measure the direction and magnitude of field! You the magnetic field probe are a Sypris Model 4080 and an EMDEX Snap line along the direction magnitude! Is a small piece of material with current in it and placed a! Must take care to be magnetically clean and should check the 'magnetic '! [ 21 ] limited due to spin-exchange relaxation field produced by the military as a `` bomb '' of. Measures the light passing through the cell quantum oscillations ( classed by this causes a on! Measures magnetic field, using an internal calibration or known physical constants of electrons!

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